A Qualitative and Sociolinguistic Case Study of the Maithili Dalits
ynyogi@yahoo.com
-Narendra Narayan Sahu.
Abstract
This research is based on the field study of Musahar community who are currently living in all over the nation, Nepal and this group of the Dalits speaks mainly Maithili, Bhojpuri, Abadhi, Magahi etc. as their native languages. But majority of them speak Maithali for their daily communication. The study is concentrated on only language barrier in their education and development as a specimen datum and the speakers are oriented towards the other prosperous languages. The data were elicited from Focus Group Discussion and Case Study of Three different Maithili Speaking Communities.
1. Theoretical Background
There are more than 6000 languages spoken all over the world. A number of books published since the 1980s give an imaginative figure of between 6,000 and 7,000, but estimates have varied in recent decades between 3,000 and 10,000. It is important to understand the reasons for such enormous variation (Crystal 2000).
Various survey results and linguists have done different estimates about the numbers of languages. As a result, without professional guidance, figures in popular estimation see-sawed wildly at the great range of differences. So, it is necessary to manage the systematic survey.
However, it is poignant to observe that almost half of world's 7,000 languages are likely to be lost by the end of this century. The census report (2001) has identified 92 (plus a few more) languages which are spoken as mother tongues in Nepal.
Ethnologue (2005 cited in Yadav, 2008) presents a list of 126 languages of Nepal. Besides them, a number of languages have been reported as 'unknown' languages, which need to be identified
On the basis of field observation and analysis. This multilingual setting confers on Nepal a distinctive position on the linguistic map of the world and renders it as one of the most fascinating areas of linguistic research.
The branch of linguistics that deals with the scientific knowledge of field research or fieldwork is known as 'field linguistics'. Field linguistics is primarily a way of obtaining linguistic data and studying linguistic phenomena.
Therefore, it is better to say field is the real laboratory of the linguists (Samarin J., 1967).
Everett (2001) clearly defines-"Field work describes the activity of a researcher systematically analyzing parts of a language". Samarin again emphasizes, "Field linguistics can be carried on anywhere, not just in the field as its name implies. Some field work is done by bringing jungle dwellers to a city and is conducted in an office instead of a lean- to".
A number of speech communities, either which have lost their native speakers and languages (e.g. Sanskrit, Mugali, Baybansi etc) or which languages are threatened (Kusunda, Kagate, Koche etc) with extinction under the pressure of linguistic and sociopolitical forces should be protected. Therefore, the job and responsibility of a field linguist is to study and preserve the language and inform the society, political leaders and government about the hazardous situation.
Nepalese caste hierarchy which was established by Mulki Ain 1910 and which obstructed harmonious society for centuries created bad feeling of caste- relationship among hierarchical communities (i. e. from upper community to lower community) who feel great crack among racial groups. The oppressed castes have been dominated for centuries have been forming the unity for different movements in Nepal for their language and culture. As Kangas also says,
… Many missionaries used at least to start with people's mother tongues in both church and education… (Kangas 2000: 224)
Madheshi have been suppressed for centuries. What can be the position of Dalits in Madhesh? They have been bereaved of any national opportunity. They have some reservation in interim constitution which also contains historical revolutionary steps for the recognition of linguistic and cultural diversity of Nepal. But actually that does not seem to be found in practical life to date.
The people who are deprived of rights and opportunities have been raising the slogan for at least their basic needs.
1. 1 Definition of Dalits
The community which has been compelled to live at the lowest caste hierarchical structure of the society and which has been bereft of educational, socio-economical, political and any governmental job opportunities is known as Dalit in Nepal.
Hindu antidemocratic high caste 'khas' (Brahman) egoists based caste hierarchical nation have neglected Dalit's ambition and demand. Additionally, they have been creating repressive policy and activities against Dalits.
Almost 20% Dalits in Nepal are living in hilly 'khas' 'madhesi' and Newari communities and they are compelled to be at the bottom line and to be the oppressed groups of the societies (Basnet et al. 2007). There are several Dalits in Madhes like Musahar, Dusad, Tatma, Khatbe, Dhobi, Batar, Gangai, Chirimar, Doma, Meche, Halkhora, Koche, Chamar, Kamiya etc. Among them, the concentration of this research will be on Musahar community.
1. 2 Culture of Musahar Community
Culture covers manners, behaviors etc. of the members of a society. The society is oriented by some fix values, norms etc. which are the factors of progress and educational achievement. And the society has been bounded by its own culture which contains several specific norms, values, thinking angles etc. In the same way, the Musahar community has also its own culture which can be the prominent factors for its educational achievement. They (Musahars) use their all usual materials which are depended on their traditions, community and profession. In the Maithili community, the same language is spoken differently by different ethnic groups. In this regard, Non-Standard Maithili which is used by the Musahars is not accepted in high caste people. They (high caste people) use Standard Maithili when they have to speak to upper / high caste people and in return they have to get responses in Non-Standard Maithili by high caste people. So, they are deprived of progress because of two main reasons: one is their living style and another is their language which inhibits their all kinds of progress and educational achievement. Education is aggrandizer and Musahar community is deprived of basic or higher education and the production of high quality human resources.
1. 3 The Musahars
The Musahar is the second largest group in terms of population size among the Terai Dalits.
The Musahar population with more than 10,000 is found in six districts. They are heavily concentrated in Siraha and Saptari districts. (Risal et al. 2006: 78)
Musahars with earthly works like digging farm, building barrages in the streams, catching rats and fish are considered to be the traditional labourers.
Rickshaw pulling, ploughing (bonded labourers i.e. they till land of others, and for this, they get 5-10 "katta" land to cultivate), daily wage labouring are their primary occupations. Some males have to go to foreign cities like Punjab, Delhi and some others have to engage in industrial areas to work as wage labourers. And ladies raise hens, goats etc. and collect fire wood. They also work as wage labourers under local landlords. Their children spend most of their time helping their parents in household chores. Their poor life is in considerably hazardous situation.
1. 4 Language and Literacy of the Musahars
This group of Dalits speaks mainly Maithili, Bhojpuri, Abadhi, Magahi etc. as their native languages. But majority of them speak Maithali for their daily communication.
According to the 2001 census, the total population of Dalits in Nepal is 2, 505,028 (11% of the total population). And the total population of Madheshi Dalits is 888, 280 (35.5% of the total Dalit population). Literacy rate of the Madheshi Dalits is very low. Among them, Musahar has the lowest literacy rate (6.9%). Adult literacy is almost nil and the lowest among all other groups in Nepal. The drop-out rate among the children of this community is very high and is more among the female children.
Although there are various factors which made them backward, language is the most prominent element in pushing them towards the darkest life.
1. 5 Language and its Effect in Schooling
Language is the root of exploitation for Dalits in both school and society. They have to use even a prestigious Maithili dialect (respectable language) when they talk with upper caste people. In return, they get the response in non-respectable language (dialect).
The regional dialects or social dialect (sociolect) of Musahar are different from those of upper caste people' dialects. They generally speak two dialects in two different situations and regions. That is, in 'Musahari Tole', they speak non-prestigious dialect of Maithali and in 'upper castes' Tole' (a certain territory), they speak prestigious dialect. Owing to the use of non prestigious language, the Musahars' regional languages limit further ability to communicate with the village population of the Terai region (Gaige 1975)
Language is working as a dominating factor on the part of their perception. A class fellow of higher castes calls them ‘Maitkata’ to Musahars. The horrible words of addressing them invite psychological suppression. So, their participation in learning with dormant brain weakens them in spontaneous expression.
…Children who do not speak the official school language when they begin school face special challenges… (UNESCO 2007: 2)
The interacting language which is used for them is the big problem in their learning.
Secondly, in search of better living, they have to face their mobile life. In migrated places, they have to learn a new local language. They cannot be a fluent speaker in either their own language or the new language of the migrated place. The language problem makes them dumb and its direct effect falls on their children who lack good expression (in speaking and writing) in schooling life.
Thirdly, they are usually using restricted non-standard code (i.e. the code that is used in only a certain area or society) of Maithili in their home environment. And they have to use elaborated standard code with their high caste interlocutors. But they have to learn through the other language when they enter into school. They have to communicate with teachers administrators etc. in Nepali language. Even a simple application for schools and offices, they have to write in Nepali medium.
There is a great question "How to offer equal opportunities in education and to evolve strategies for its continuation? In this regard Gaige also mentioned that Non-Nepali speakers have been exploited everywhere in Nepal for centuries. The Nepal government can communicate with Nepali speaking villagers and citizens through various Channels: radio, newspapers, local government officials' personal contact with villagers, and the educational system etc. (Gaige 1975). Generally all these channels are operated in Nepali.
Multi-dimensional negative effects for educational achievement have been imposed on The Dalits villagers like the Musahars who are one of the extremely social excluded people. Inclusion of identity has also been neglected by government for centuries. They do not ever feel that they have dignity in the nation and the society. The Musahars have been encountering economic exclusion, political and power carelessness, job opportunity negligence, educational rashness etc. They have also extremely been excluded in using prepared meal and drinking water etc. in any public place, hotel and feast. They do lack awareness and even public information to use the different kinds of public resources as well. Not only from the national tradition but also from natural resources of Nepal, Nepalese rulers and Hindu activists have been imposing the chaos life on them. Owing to the exclusion from various angles, they generally have to settle their dwellings on the side of the rivers or beaches and the places where they frequently meet flood, landslide, impediments, etc. Being the victim of natural disasters, their life is not free from struggling for the basic needs. So, they are unable to send their children to schools and academic institutions. As they have been suppressed for long they suffer from mental inhibition to express in words what they feel and their painful consequences are problematic and they remain linguistically handicapped.
Among all these afore said elements, education with appropriate language is the aggrandizer for human development. It is the educational and rich linguistic capital which has created the higher level officers, elites and controllers of the nation.
In short, there are several factors which are the blockages of attainment of education of the community. They are geographical, socio-cultural, economic, physical, mental, emotional and linguistic factors.
Among them, language is the most powerful factor which serves as the transformer for both the community and the school's education. In the community, their children have to speak their own mother tongue in the whole Madhesh and when they enter the school they have to learn the study materials in non-native languages and they cannot hope to use the native language at all in increasing classes.
If the students get easy study materials in the beginning, he will be encouraged in learning and will get feedback to proceed to further education.
Thus, a little use of their mother tongue makes them escape from education. So, the students encounter only two options: either dropout or language shift. If there is language shift of their native language; it will disappear from its existence and one of the vital national properties will be lost. If there are drop-outs, the human development capital will be blocked. The under presentation and the drop-outs of the Dalits in education became natural and an irresistible phenomenon. To conclude, the main cause of the Dalits' development in education is the language.
1. 6 Language Helps Human Beings at Every Steps of their Life.
Language is a wonderful medium of cognitive development which is based on exposure and feedback in learning environment. If the learners get discouraged and get public embarrassment due to the language, they become linguistically handicapped and get mental inhibition in learning. So, the whole system of education depends on its positive and negative use and effects of language.
To quote in words of Hockett, "Man cannot live by bread alone another necessity is language". Language is means of all-round development.
The aforementioned psycholinguistic concepts and the words of Hockett can be proved with the research in speech community of the Dalits.
1. 7 Relationship between Language and Education
Without using language, one cannot think about education. Language is the ladder to ascend to the top of education. The use of a language in education is considerably sensitive issue.
The vital and potential numbers of Dalits as a human resource have been back warded for centuries in Nepal. Dalits have been undergoing great obstacles on the path of all-round development and getting mental inhibition because of language at every steps of their life. They have overall command on their mother tongue; but that language is not enough for their existence. For example, when they become the victim of disasters or they are in abrupt destructed situation, they have to speak Nepali even with rescue officers, and to write even an application in Nepali. That is, they have to express in Nepali in written or oral forms. Owing to the information gap, they could not get appropriate relief.
So, they are with their mother tongue only, they could not compete in Nepali medium for opportunities, could not interact properly in Nepali. That's why, their existence is confined to be the lower citizen or the laborers.
The solutions of these problems may be in the security of diverse linguistic prosperity and reservation.
The present reservation in constitution creates the great contention into two poles. Firstly, the supporters advocate that the long rooted oppression and established stereotypes of inequality will be broken only with affirmative action, positive discrimination and reservation which are needed to compensate minorities for centuries of slavery.
On the other pole, diametrically opposite viewers (i.e. in a talk program of Martin Chautari ) claim that affirmative action and reservation will invite lower standards of accountability and ill- equipped bureaucrats; hard working habit and ability development will be obstructed. So, it should be eliminated. They disregard the language right and the importance of languages and non Nepali speakers who can not get any opportunity in the nation.
1. 8 Factors That Disturb the Musahars in Education
A variety of factors are their obstacle on the path of getting education. They are age, ethnicity, power, demography, gender, sources of exposure of the target language, previous language background, cultural distance, ego permeability etc. Among them, language and their daily habits are the most prominent hindrance. Moreover, they are generally pessimistic in terms of two major types of motivational orientation: integrative and instrumental. That is, in integrative motivation, a learner wishes to learn language with community culture; he wants to be integrated in it with open-mind and eventually becomes to be accepted as a member of that group. In case of instrumental motivation, one's purposes of language study links with the more utilitarian value of linguistic achievement, such as getting ahead in one's occupation, opportunity etc.
Thus, the Madheshi Dalits have great cultural distance from Nepali speakers and nor do they get job opportunity and promotion. So, they are not ready to learn Nepali language spontaneously. Consequently, both the motivations are lying at dormant level in case of them.
Musahars' mother-toungue which has been used in daily communication in their community is known as low level language. Often this language is spoken by only Dalits. So this is called Non-honorific language. This language has been undergone different names in its long history. They are Non-prestigious language, low level language, low caste language sometimes Dalit language.
The language is use in all over the country and it is greatly used in Madhesh area.
2. Language endangerment
The language is not used in mass media, and not studied at any educational levels. The dictionary, grammar and other documentations are not available of this language. Though this is a non-prestigious language and simple in nature, unhesitatingly, the native speaker interacts among them. Owing to labor oriented to learn the broadly speaking linga- franka, they have been shifting towards Nepali, Hindi etc. So, this dialect (sociolect) is gradually going to encounter the language endangerment. Some speakers have lower language loyalty and weak solidarity in their language.
3. Domains of language use
This language is not found an ongoing status for all round development in comparison to the other languages of the nation. The Musahars are compulsorily to speak their low level language when they meet each other in any office or a street or anywhere. This shows their great devotion to their language. They are very eager to speak their own language in their daily communication and rituals. They do not speak other language in their 'Toles' (their dwelling village). New generations are not totally dedicated to this language because of various reasons mentioned above. Their language is compulsorily used while they do their festival, feast and rites. In short, their language is being narrowed to daily communication, rituals and the other uses.
The three communities' speakers in question are speaking three different sociolects. The data are cited below.
I. HCP:
i. apane padheita chhiyenha (Do you read?)
ii. bauwa baital chhathinha (The boy is sitting.)
iii. apane geil jaiyonha (You go.)
iv. apane katase yeliyeinha (Where are you from.)
v. babuji khaita chhathinha (The father is eating.)
II. MCP:
i. aaha padhei chhiyei (Do you read?)
ii. bauwa baital achha (The boy is sitting.)
iii. aaha jaiyo/ jau (You go.)
iv. aaha katase yeliyei (Where are you from.)
v. babu khaita achha (The father is eating.)
III. LCP:
i. tu padhei chhi (Do you read?)
ii. chhaura baital chhai (The boy is sitting.)
iii. tu jo/chel jo (You go.)
iv. tu katase yelhi (Where are you from.)
v. baau khai chhai (The father is eating.)
4. Language maintenance, transmission and vitality
Language maintenance refers to the extent to which people continue to use a language once they are part of a community in which another language has dominant position (Crystal, 2003).
The native speakers of this community does not maintain their language; and do not have intense desire to transmit it generation to generation. There is no any organization working for the prosperity of the language. There is not any help for the writers of this language; there is not any published book and not do any of encouragement for the authors and the language related personalities have been managed. And nor does there emphasize on the language related movements.
5. Language Endangerment and Code Mixing
Owing to code mixing in the Dalits' Maithili, a great number of words from Nepali and Hindi have been used in Maithili and found domination of Nepali and Hindi on Maithili. New generation people are found in 25% words mixing from Nepali and 10% words from Hindi. So, Maithili is going to encounter endangerment between Nepali and Hindi. In context of Nepal, the degree of language loyalty of Maithili speaker is gradually going to decrease owing to the opportunity and power in Nepali.
I. The Dalit's Maithili is suppressed by two major languages: Nepali and Hindi.
II. Opportunity, employment, power etc. are in either Hindi or Nepali. The Dalits rely on labor works in these two speech communities' factories, industries etc. So, their orientation is following these two speech communities.
III. These three community people are speaking three different sociolects. But the high caste people' dialect of Maithili is regarded as a standard Maithili which is being used in both electronic and print media and in grammer and dictionary etc.
IV. When these three types of people meet in a place, all of them use Prestigious or Standard Maithili in that speech situation. When the Dalits return to thier home, they use non-honorific (so called non prestigious language) sociolect in home. And high caste people use the same language everywhere and in any speech situations.
Common
Place
V. Both the people maintain the equal social dialect (sociolect) when they meet one another.
HCP LCP
Com.
VI. They (High Caste People and Low Caste People) do not use equal standard language. That is, Low Caste People (LCP) use prestigious standard Maithili; and contrarily High Caste People (HCP) use Non-prestigious or Non-standard or Non-honorific language with LCP.
HCP LCP
6. Language Resources
It does not have its own script. Writing tradition of this language is not found and native speakers are not very loyal to their language. As they felt great obstruction in their job communication in industries and in factories they do not continuously try to speak their own language.
At the present time, the language is used 9 districts in this nation. It is not used in both electronic and print media. The magazines, journals, newspapers, books, grammars and manuals are never available in this language (dialect of Maithili).
7. Conclusion
Grammar, dictionary, literary texts like pre primer, primer and post primer are not found in the Dalit's Maithili. Their sociolect is not used in mass media (i. e. electronic media and print media). So, among different obstructions, language is the most powerful barrier for their progress.
Reference
CBS. 2001. The population Census of Nepal, 2001. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal.
CBS. 2002. Caste/ Ethnicity, Mother Tongue & Religion Population of Nepal. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Crystal, David. 2000. Language Death. London: Cambridgae University Preess U.K.
Everett, Daniel L. 2006. Linguistics Fieldwork: A Stuent Guide (Draft): Unpublished.
Samarin, William J. 1966. Field Linguistics: A Guide to Linguistic Field Work. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Basnet, Purna and Subhash Darnal, eds. 2007. Bishesha Adhikara ra Aarakshanko Rajaniti. Kathmandu: Jagaran Midia Center.
HMG. 1910. Muluki Ain. HMG.
Education Department. 2007-2009. Multilingual Education Program for All Non- Nepali Speaking Students of Primary Schools of Nepal Pamphlet. Kathmandu: Manuscript
Gaige, F. H. 1975. Regionalism and National Unity in Nepal. London: Univesity of California press.
Hockett, C. F. 1958. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: MacMillan.
Kangas, Tove S. 2000. Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. New Delhi: Orient Longman Private Limited.
Risal, Subas et al. 2006. Ethnographic Study of Terai Dalits in Nepal. Lalitpur : Nepal National Depressed Social Welfare Organization.
UNESCO. 2007. Advocacy Kit for Promoting Multilingual Education: Including the Excluded Policy Makers Booklet. Bangkok: UNESCO.
Yadav, et al. 2008. Multilingual Nepal: Linguistic Situation and Language Policy. Latitpur: SIRF.
Wednesday, May 4, 2011
Friday, April 29, 2011
Abstract
This research is based on the field study of Musahar community who are currently living in all over the nation, Nepal and this group of the Dalits speaks mainly Maithili, Bhojpuri, Abadhi, Magahi etc. as their native languages. But majority of them speak Maithali for their daily communication. The study is concentrated on only language barrier in their education and development as a specimen datum and the speakers are oriented towards the other prosperous languages. The data were elicited from Focus Group Discussion and Case Study of Three different Maithili Speaking Communities.
1.1 Background
There are more than 6000 languages spoken all over the world. A number of books published since the 1980s give an imaginative figure of between 6,000 and 7,000, but estimates have varied in recent decades between 3,000 and 10,000. It is important to understand the reasons for such enormous variation (Crystal 2000).
Various survey results and linguists have done different estimates about the numbers of languages. As a result, without professional guidance, figures in popular estimation see-sawed wildly at the great range of differences. So, it is necessary to manage the systematic survey.
However, it is poignant to observe that almost half of world's 7,000 languages are likely to be lost by the end of this century. The census report (2001) has identified 92 (plus a few more) languages which are spoken as mother tongues in Nepal.
Ethnologue (2005 cited in Yadav, 2008) presents a list of 126 languages of Nepal. Besides them, a number of languages have been reported as 'unknown' languages, which need to be identified
On the basis of field observation and analysis. This multilingual setting confers on Nepal a distinctive position on the linguistic map of the world and renders it as one of the most fascinating areas of linguistic research.
The branch of linguistics that deals with the scientific knowledge of field research or fieldwork is known as 'field linguistics'. Field linguistics is primarily a way of obtaining linguistic data and studying linguistic phenomena.
Therefore, it is better to say field is the real laboratory of the linguists (Samarin J., 1967).
Everett (2001) clearly defines-"Field work describes the activity of a researcher systematically analyzing parts of a language". Samarin again emphasizes, "Field linguistics can be carried on anywhere, not just in the field as its name implies. Some field work is done by bringing jungle dwellers to a city and is conducted in an office instead of a lean- to".
A number of speech communities, either which have lost their native speakers and languages (e.g. Sanskrit, Mugali, Baybansi etc) or which languages are threatened (Kusunda, Kagate, Koche etc) with extinction under the pressure of linguistic and sociopolitical forces should be protected. Therefore, the job and responsibility of a field linguist is to study and preserve the language and inform the society, political leaders and government about the hazardous situation.
Nepalese caste hierarchy which was established by Mulki Ain 1910 and which obstructed harmonious society for centuries created bad feeling of caste- relationship among hierarchical communities (i. e. from upper community to lower community) who feel great crack among racial groups. The oppressed castes have been dominated for centuries have been forming the unity for different movements in Nepal for their language and culture. As Kangas also says,
… Many missionaries used at least to start with people's mother tongues in both church and education… (Kangas 2000: 224)
Madheshi have been suppressed for centuries. What can be the position of Dalits in Madhesh? They have been bereaved of any national opportunity. They have some reservation in interim constitution which also contains historical revolutionary steps for the recognition of linguistic and cultural diversity of Nepal. But actually that does not seem to be found in practical life to date.
The people who are deprived of rights and opportunities have been raising the slogan for at least their basic needs.
Various survey results and linguists have done different estimates about the numbers of languages. As a result, without professional guidance, figures in popular estimation see-sawed wildly at the great range of differences. So, it is necessary to manage the systematic survey.
However, it is poignant to observe that almost half of world's 7,000 languages are likely to be lost by the end of this century. The census report (2001) has identified 92 (plus a few more) languages which are spoken as mother tongues in Nepal.
Ethnologue (2005 cited in Yadav, 2008) presents a list of 126 languages of Nepal. Besides them, a number of languages have been reported as 'unknown' languages, which need to be identified
On the basis of field observation and analysis. This multilingual setting confers on Nepal a distinctive position on the linguistic map of the world and renders it as one of the most fascinating areas of linguistic research.
The branch of linguistics that deals with the scientific knowledge of field research or fieldwork is known as 'field linguistics'. Field linguistics is primarily a way of obtaining linguistic data and studying linguistic phenomena.
Therefore, it is better to say field is the real laboratory of the linguists (Samarin J., 1967).
Everett (2001) clearly defines-"Field work describes the activity of a researcher systematically analyzing parts of a language". Samarin again emphasizes, "Field linguistics can be carried on anywhere, not just in the field as its name implies. Some field work is done by bringing jungle dwellers to a city and is conducted in an office instead of a lean- to".
A number of speech communities, either which have lost their native speakers and languages (e.g. Sanskrit, Mugali, Baybansi etc) or which languages are threatened (Kusunda, Kagate, Koche etc) with extinction under the pressure of linguistic and sociopolitical forces should be protected. Therefore, the job and responsibility of a field linguist is to study and preserve the language and inform the society, political leaders and government about the hazardous situation.
Nepalese caste hierarchy which was established by Mulki Ain 1910 and which obstructed harmonious society for centuries created bad feeling of caste- relationship among hierarchical communities (i. e. from upper community to lower community) who feel great crack among racial groups. The oppressed castes have been dominated for centuries have been forming the unity for different movements in Nepal for their language and culture. As Kangas also says,
… Many missionaries used at least to start with people's mother tongues in both church and education… (Kangas 2000: 224)
Madheshi have been suppressed for centuries. What can be the position of Dalits in Madhesh? They have been bereaved of any national opportunity. They have some reservation in interim constitution which also contains historical revolutionary steps for the recognition of linguistic and cultural diversity of Nepal. But actually that does not seem to be found in practical life to date.
The people who are deprived of rights and opportunities have been raising the slogan for at least their basic needs.
1. 2 Culture of Musahar Community
Culture covers manners, behaviors etc. of the members of a society. The society is oriented by some fix values, norms etc. which are the factors of progress and educational achievement. And the society has been bounded by its own culture which contains several specific norms, values, thinking angles etc. In the same way, the Musahar community has also its own culture which can be the prominent factors for its educational achievement. They (Musahars) use their all usual materials which are depended on their traditions, community and profession. In the Maithili community, the same language is spoken differently by different ethnic groups. In this regard, Non-Standard Maithili which is used by the Musahars is not accepted in high caste people. They (high caste people) use Standard Maithili when they have to speak to upper / high caste people and in return they have to get responses in Non-Standard Maithili by high caste people. So, they are deprived of progress because of two main reasons: one is their living style and another is their language which inhibits their all kinds of progress and educational achievement. Education is aggrandizer and Musahar community is deprived of basic or higher education and the production of high quality human resources.
1. 3 The Musahars
The Musahar is the second largest group in terms of population size among the Terai Dalits.
The Musahar population with more than 10,000 is found in six districts. They are heavily concentrated in Siraha and Saptari districts. (Risal et al. 2006: 78)
Musahars with earthly works like digging farm, building barrages in the streams, catching rats and fish are considered to be the traditional labourers.
Rickshaw pulling, ploughing (bonded labourers i.e. they till land of others, and for this, they get 5-10 "katta" land to cultivate), daily wage labouring are their primary occupations. Some males have to go to foreign cities like Punjab, Delhi and some others have to engage in industrial areas to work as wage labourers. And ladies raise hens, goats etc. and collect fire wood. They also work as wage labourers under local landlords. Their children spend most of their time helping their parents in household chores. Their poor life is in considerably hazardous situation.
The Musahar population with more than 10,000 is found in six districts. They are heavily concentrated in Siraha and Saptari districts. (Risal et al. 2006: 78)
Musahars with earthly works like digging farm, building barrages in the streams, catching rats and fish are considered to be the traditional labourers.
Rickshaw pulling, ploughing (bonded labourers i.e. they till land of others, and for this, they get 5-10 "katta" land to cultivate), daily wage labouring are their primary occupations. Some males have to go to foreign cities like Punjab, Delhi and some others have to engage in industrial areas to work as wage labourers. And ladies raise hens, goats etc. and collect fire wood. They also work as wage labourers under local landlords. Their children spend most of their time helping their parents in household chores. Their poor life is in considerably hazardous situation.
1. 4 Language and Literacy of the Musahars
This group of Dalits speaks mainly Maithili, Bhojpuri, Abadhi, Magahi etc. as their native languages. But majority of them speak Maithali for their daily communication.
According to the 2001 census, the total population of Dalits in Nepal is 2, 505,028 (11% of the total population). And the total population of Madheshi Dalits is 888, 280 (35.5% of the total Dalit population). Literacy rate of the Madheshi Dalits is very low. Among them, Musahar has the lowest literacy rate (6.9%). Adult literacy is almost nil and the lowest among all other groups in Nepal. The drop-out rate among the children of this community is very high and is more among the female children.
Although there are various factors which made them backward, language is the most prominent element in pushing them towards the darkest life.
According to the 2001 census, the total population of Dalits in Nepal is 2, 505,028 (11% of the total population). And the total population of Madheshi Dalits is 888, 280 (35.5% of the total Dalit population). Literacy rate of the Madheshi Dalits is very low. Among them, Musahar has the lowest literacy rate (6.9%). Adult literacy is almost nil and the lowest among all other groups in Nepal. The drop-out rate among the children of this community is very high and is more among the female children.
Although there are various factors which made them backward, language is the most prominent element in pushing them towards the darkest life.
1. 5 Language and its Effect in Schooling
Language is the root of exploitation for Dalits in both school and society. They have to use even a prestigious Maithili dialect (respectable language) when they talk with upper caste people. In return, they get the response in non-respectable language (dialect).
The regional dialects or social dialect (sociolect) of Musahar are different from those of upper caste people' dialects. They generally speak two dialects in two different situations and regions. That is, in 'Musahari Tole', they speak non-prestigious dialect of Maithali and in 'upper castes' Tole' (a certain territory), they speak prestigious dialect. Owing to the use of non prestigious language, the Musahars' regional languages limit further ability to communicate with the village population of the Terai region (Gaige 1975)
Language is working as a dominating factor on the part of their perception. A class fellow of higher castes calls them ‘Maitkata’ to Musahars. The horrible words of addressing them invite psychological suppression. So, their participation in learning with dormant brain weakens them in spontaneous expression.
…Children who do not speak the official school language when they begin school face special challenges… (UNESCO 2007: 2)
The interacting language which is used for them is the big problem in their learning.
Secondly, in search of better living, they have to face their mobile life. In migrated places, they have to learn a new local language. They cannot be a fluent speaker in either their own language or the new language of the migrated place. The language problem makes them dumb and its direct effect falls on their children who lack good expression (in speaking and writing) in schooling life.
Thirdly, they are usually using restricted non-standard code (i.e. the code that is used in only a certain area or society) of Maithili in their home environment. And they have to use elaborated standard code with their high caste interlocutors. But they have to learn through the other language when they enter into school. They have to communicate with teachers administrators etc. in Nepali language. Even a simple application for schools and offices, they have to write in Nepali medium.
There is a great question "How to offer equal opportunities in education and to evolve strategies for its continuation? In this regard Gaige also mentioned that Non-Nepali speakers have been exploited everywhere in Nepal for centuries. The Nepal government can communicate with Nepali speaking villagers and citizens through various Channels: radio, newspapers, local government officials' personal contact with villagers, and the educational system etc. (Gaige 1975). Generally all these channels are operated in Nepali.
Multi-dimensional negative effects for educational achievement have been imposed on The Dalits villagers like the Musahars who are one of the extremely social excluded people. Inclusion of identity has also been neglected by government for centuries. They do not ever feel that they have dignity in the nation and the society. The Musahars have been encountering economic exclusion, political and power carelessness, job opportunity negligence, educational rashness etc. They have also extremely been excluded in using prepared meal and drinking water etc. in any public place, hotel and feast. They do lack awareness and even public information to use the different kinds of public resources as well. Not only from the national tradition but also from natural resources of Nepal, Nepalese rulers and Hindu activists have been imposing the chaos life on them. Owing to the exclusion from various angles, they generally have to settle their dwellings on the side of the rivers or beaches and the places where they frequently meet flood, landslide, impediments, etc. Being the victim of natural disasters, their life is not free from struggling for the basic needs. So, they are unable to send their children to schools and academic institutions. As they have been suppressed for long they suffer from mental inhibition to express in words what they feel and their painful consequences are problematic and they remain linguistically handicapped.
Among all these afore said elements, education with appropriate language is the aggrandizer for human development. It is the educational and rich linguistic capital which has created the higher level officers, elites and controllers of the nation.
In short, there are several factors which are the blockages of attainment of education of the community. They are geographical, socio-cultural, economic, physical, mental, emotional and linguistic factors.
Among them, language is the most powerful factor which serves as the transformer for both the community and the school's education. In the community, their children have to speak their own mother tongue in the whole Madhesh and when they enter the school they have to learn the study materials in non-native languages and they cannot hope to use the native language at all in increasing classes.
If the students get easy study materials in the beginning, he will be encouraged in learning and will get feedback to proceed to further education.
Thus, a little use of their mother tongue makes them escape from education. So, the students encounter only two options: either dropout or language shift. If there is language shift of their native language; it will disappear from its existence and one of the vital national properties will be lost. If there are drop-outs, the human development capital will be blocked. The under presentation and the drop-outs of the Dalits in education became natural and an irresistible phenomenon. To conclude, the main cause of the Dalits' development in education is the language.
The regional dialects or social dialect (sociolect) of Musahar are different from those of upper caste people' dialects. They generally speak two dialects in two different situations and regions. That is, in 'Musahari Tole', they speak non-prestigious dialect of Maithali and in 'upper castes' Tole' (a certain territory), they speak prestigious dialect. Owing to the use of non prestigious language, the Musahars' regional languages limit further ability to communicate with the village population of the Terai region (Gaige 1975)
Language is working as a dominating factor on the part of their perception. A class fellow of higher castes calls them ‘Maitkata’ to Musahars. The horrible words of addressing them invite psychological suppression. So, their participation in learning with dormant brain weakens them in spontaneous expression.
…Children who do not speak the official school language when they begin school face special challenges… (UNESCO 2007: 2)
The interacting language which is used for them is the big problem in their learning.
Secondly, in search of better living, they have to face their mobile life. In migrated places, they have to learn a new local language. They cannot be a fluent speaker in either their own language or the new language of the migrated place. The language problem makes them dumb and its direct effect falls on their children who lack good expression (in speaking and writing) in schooling life.
Thirdly, they are usually using restricted non-standard code (i.e. the code that is used in only a certain area or society) of Maithili in their home environment. And they have to use elaborated standard code with their high caste interlocutors. But they have to learn through the other language when they enter into school. They have to communicate with teachers administrators etc. in Nepali language. Even a simple application for schools and offices, they have to write in Nepali medium.
There is a great question "How to offer equal opportunities in education and to evolve strategies for its continuation? In this regard Gaige also mentioned that Non-Nepali speakers have been exploited everywhere in Nepal for centuries. The Nepal government can communicate with Nepali speaking villagers and citizens through various Channels: radio, newspapers, local government officials' personal contact with villagers, and the educational system etc. (Gaige 1975). Generally all these channels are operated in Nepali.
Multi-dimensional negative effects for educational achievement have been imposed on The Dalits villagers like the Musahars who are one of the extremely social excluded people. Inclusion of identity has also been neglected by government for centuries. They do not ever feel that they have dignity in the nation and the society. The Musahars have been encountering economic exclusion, political and power carelessness, job opportunity negligence, educational rashness etc. They have also extremely been excluded in using prepared meal and drinking water etc. in any public place, hotel and feast. They do lack awareness and even public information to use the different kinds of public resources as well. Not only from the national tradition but also from natural resources of Nepal, Nepalese rulers and Hindu activists have been imposing the chaos life on them. Owing to the exclusion from various angles, they generally have to settle their dwellings on the side of the rivers or beaches and the places where they frequently meet flood, landslide, impediments, etc. Being the victim of natural disasters, their life is not free from struggling for the basic needs. So, they are unable to send their children to schools and academic institutions. As they have been suppressed for long they suffer from mental inhibition to express in words what they feel and their painful consequences are problematic and they remain linguistically handicapped.
Among all these afore said elements, education with appropriate language is the aggrandizer for human development. It is the educational and rich linguistic capital which has created the higher level officers, elites and controllers of the nation.
In short, there are several factors which are the blockages of attainment of education of the community. They are geographical, socio-cultural, economic, physical, mental, emotional and linguistic factors.
Among them, language is the most powerful factor which serves as the transformer for both the community and the school's education. In the community, their children have to speak their own mother tongue in the whole Madhesh and when they enter the school they have to learn the study materials in non-native languages and they cannot hope to use the native language at all in increasing classes.
If the students get easy study materials in the beginning, he will be encouraged in learning and will get feedback to proceed to further education.
Thus, a little use of their mother tongue makes them escape from education. So, the students encounter only two options: either dropout or language shift. If there is language shift of their native language; it will disappear from its existence and one of the vital national properties will be lost. If there are drop-outs, the human development capital will be blocked. The under presentation and the drop-outs of the Dalits in education became natural and an irresistible phenomenon. To conclude, the main cause of the Dalits' development in education is the language.
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